- Dutch1
- Frisian
- Saterfrisian
- Afrikaans
-
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
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- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Compositions
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
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- General
- Morphology
- Morphology
- 1 Word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 1.1.1 Compounds and their heads
- 1.1.2 Special types of compounds
- 1.1.2.1 Affixoids
- 1.1.2.2 Coordinative compounds
- 1.1.2.3 Synthetic compounds and complex pseudo-participles
- 1.1.2.4 Reduplicative compounds
- 1.1.2.5 Phrase-based compounds
- 1.1.2.6 Elative compounds
- 1.1.2.7 Exocentric compounds
- 1.1.2.8 Linking elements
- 1.1.2.9 Separable Complex Verbs and Particle Verbs
- 1.1.2.10 Noun Incorporation Verbs
- 1.1.2.11 Gapping
- 1.2 Derivation
- 1.3 Minor patterns of word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 2 Inflection
- 1 Word formation
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
- 0 Introduction to the AP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of APs
- 2 Complementation of APs
- 3 Modification and degree quantification of APs
- 4 Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative
- 5 Attribution of APs
- 6 Predication of APs
- 7 The partitive adjective construction
- 8 Adverbial use of APs
- 9 Participles and infinitives as APs
- Nouns and Noun Phrases (NPs)
- 0 Introduction to the NP
- 1 Characteristics and Classification of NPs
- 2 Complementation of NPs
- 3 Modification of NPs
- 3.1 Modification of NP by Determiners and APs
- 3.2 Modification of NP by PP
- 3.3 Modification of NP by adverbial clauses
- 3.4 Modification of NP by possessors
- 3.5 Modification of NP by relative clauses
- 3.6 Modification of NP in a cleft construction
- 3.7 Free relative clauses and selected interrogative clauses
- 4 Partitive noun constructions and constructions related to them
- 4.1 The referential partitive construction
- 4.2 The partitive construction of abstract quantity
- 4.3 The numerical partitive construction
- 4.4 The partitive interrogative construction
- 4.5 Adjectival, nominal and nominalised partitive quantifiers
- 4.6 Kind partitives
- 4.7 Partitive predication with a preposition
- 4.8 Bare nominal attribution
- 5 Articles and names
- 6 Pronouns
- 7 Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- 8 Interrogative pronouns
- 9 R-pronouns and the indefinite expletive
- 10 Syntactic functions of Noun Phrases
- Adpositions and Adpositional Phrases (PPs)
- 0 Introduction to the PP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of PPs
- 2 Complementation of PPs
- 3 Modification of PPs
- 4 Bare (intransitive) adpositions
- 5 Predication of PPs
- 6 Form and distribution of adpositions with respect to staticity and construction type
- 7 Adpositional complements and adverbials
- Verbs and Verb Phrases (VPs)
- 0 Introduction to the VP in Saterland Frisian
- 1 Characteristics and classification of verbs
- 2 Unergative and unaccusative subjects and the auxiliary of the perfect
- 3 Evidentiality in relation to perception and epistemicity
- 4 Types of to-infinitival constituents
- 5 Predication
- 5.1 The auxiliary of being and its selection restrictions
- 5.2 The auxiliary of going and its selection restrictions
- 5.3 The auxiliary of continuation and its selection restrictions
- 5.4 The auxiliary of coming and its selection restrictions
- 5.5 Modal auxiliaries and their selection restrictions
- 5.6 Auxiliaries of body posture and aspect and their selection restrictions
- 5.7 Transitive verbs of predication
- 5.8 The auxiliary of doing used as a semantically empty finite auxiliary
- 5.9 Supplementive predication
- 6 The verbal paradigm, irregularity and suppletion
- 7 Verb Second and the word order in main and embedded clauses
- 8 Various aspects of clause structure
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
-
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
An abstract noun of quantity like Masse ‘lot’ is non-referential and not concrete. It exclusively and directly refers to quantity, whether exact or vague. An example is given below:
‘n | Masse | Sleke. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a | mass | potholes | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
A lot of potholes. |
A partitive quantity noun construction consists of the following elements from left to right:
- A noun of quantity
- A noun of content description
The quantity noun Masse ‘lot’ does not preserve its concrete, referential meaning in the partitive construction, unlike a referential noun like Kiste ‘box’, as it does not refer to a concrete object or form. It merely expresses that an abstract quantity of something is involved. Hence n Masse ‘a lot’ is referred to as a noun of quantity.
Partitive noun of quantity and content noun can be joined to each other just by putting them next to each other, as in the example above. The partitive noun comes first, and the content noun follows immediately. This occurs especially in case the partitive noun just indicates that a high quantity is involved. In such a case, it is not possible to join the nouns with the help of an adposition:
*‘n | Masse | mäd | Sleke. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a | mass | with | potholes | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
A lot of potholes. |
*‘n | Masse | fon | Sleke. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a | mass | of | potholes | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
A lot of potholes. |
Masse is even used without article and without capital. Apparently it has been reanalysed as determiner. In the examples above, the partitive noun is just an abstract high quantity noun. In contrast with partitive referential nouns, partitive nouns of quantity have restricted possibilities of modification. They do not determine the number of the construction as a whole. Content nouns in the quantificational partitive construction have restricted possibilities of modification, but they determine the number of the construction as a whole. The type of quantity noun affects the properties of the construction as a whole, even though it doesn’t determine agreement. Four types of measure nouns may be distinguished, depending on their meaning. These are discussed in the sections below.
Nouns of high quantity include: n Masse ‘a lot’, n Bierig ‘a lot’, and so on. There are quite a few nouns which have developed into high quantity nouns. They are invariably indefinite, more specifically, they are preceded by the indefinite article. The example below exemplifies a construction featuring two nouns which are joined together without the use of other elements. It is therefore referred to as a bare partitive construction:
Trientje | liet | ‘n Masse | Jeeld | bäte. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Trientje | let | a mass | money | behind | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Trientje left behind a lot of money. |
The abstract nature of the partitive noun is evident from the fact that it can be used indiscriminately for things, as in the example above, and for persons, as in the example below:
‘n | Masse | Foulk. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a | mass | people | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
A mass of people. |
The following example shows that it is not the partitive noun but the content noun which determines agreement on the tensed verb:
Deer | sunt | ‘n | Masse | Sleke | in | dän | Dom. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
there | are.PL | a | mass.SG | potholes.PL | in | the | dirt.road | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The dirt road has a lot of potholes. |
This only holds true in case the partitive noun is in the singular. If the partitive noun is in the plural then the verb must be plural, regardless of the number of the content noun.
Deer | sunt | Massen | Jeeld | tou | fertjoonjen. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
there | are | masses.PL | money.SG | to | earn | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Lots of money can be made. |
Deer | gunge | Masses | Sukker | oun. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
R | go.PL | lots.PL | sugar.SG | in | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Lots of sugar go in it. |
In case the content noun can be recovered from the linguistic context, it can be left out. Without a following content noun, the partitive noun tends to function as a marker of high degree or high quantity:
Hie | häd | deer | ‘n Masse | tou | leerd. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
he | has | R | a mass | to | learned | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
He learnt a lot extra. |
In | ju | kute | Tied | häbe | wie | ‘n | Masse | skaffed. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
in | the | short | time | have | we | a | lot | done | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
We did a lot in that short time. |
Attention should be drawn to the indefinite article of the quantity noun, which is present even if the construction as a whole is plural, as in (6) above. The indefinite article may co-occur with plural nouns only if a high amount or degree is implied. This is characteristically the case in exclamative sentences in West Frisian:
Hy | seach | in | minsken | yn | 'e | stêd! | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
he | saw | a | people | in | the | town | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
He saw a lot of people in the town! |
These examples show that the indefinite article has no effect on the number of the NP as a whole in these cases. This should be investigated for Saterland Frisian aswell.
There are more nouns of high quantity than of low quantity. The only noun of low quantity that can be used with persons and non-persons is the noun n bitje ‘a bit’. It does not preserve its literal, referential meaning anymore. Etymologically, the word goes back to the meaning of an amount of food that can be taken in the mouth. However, the word developed into a quantifier denoting a low amount, which does not in itself refer to food or mouths or anything referential. It is so abstract as to combine respectively with verbs and adjectives, and also with nouns:
Räästjet | jou | ‘n | bitje | uut. | (VP) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
rest | REFL | a | bit | out | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Have a bit of rest. |
Die | waas | so ‘n | bitje | krum. | (AP) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
it | was | so a | bit | bent | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
It was more or less a bit bent. |
‘n | Bitje | Suurdee | truchsuurt | dän | hele | Dee. | (NP) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a | bit | yeast | through.sours | the | whole | dough | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
A bit of yeast leavens the whole dough.’ |
The last example seems to feature the noun of low quantity in its most literal meaning. Normally it combines with the indefinite article, but it can also combine with the definite article, as in the following example:
Mäd | dät | bitje | Jeeld | koast | du | niks | ounfange. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
with | that | little | money | can | you | nothing | begin | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
With the little money, you can’t do anything. |
Even more abstract is wät ‘a little’, as in the following examples:
Wät ‘somewhat’ has likewise developed in a marker of a small quantity or degree, which can modify nouns, verbs and adjectives. This has to do with the fact that interrogatives are semantically closely related to existential quantifiers. Thus some languages derive existential quantifiers from question words. This has been the case in Germanic languages, in which the neuter 3SG question word is also used as an existential quantifier: all three Frisian languages and Dutch. Now Dutch and German feature iets and etwas as basic existential quantifiers, basic in the sense that they are not related to question words. Saterland Frisian seems to have lost its basic existential quantifier. This also applies to West Frisian, but in that language it was re-introduced (eat) in the 19th century, when the written language was being developed. The historical question arises why Frisian languages tend to lose their existential quantifiers, and why Dutch features both the basic existential quantifier iets ‘something’ and the interrogative used as existential wat ‘what’. Anyhow, instead of using the basic existential quantifiers, Saterland Frisian used interrogatives as existentials instead. In the same vein, Saterland Frisian wäl ‘who’ can also mean ‘somebody’ in case it occurs in the middle field, instead of at the beginning of the clause. This used to be possible in some older dialects of West Frisian as well.
Wan | me | him | wät | Jield | toukume | liet. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
when | one | him | what | money | to.come | let | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
When one let him have some money. |
The partitive noun can be used without a following content noun being present or implied. In that case, it functions as a marker of low degree or quantity, as in the following examples:
Et | siepelt | ‘n bitje | bute. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
it | drizzles | a little | outside | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
It drizzles a bit outside. |
Gunge | ‘n bitje | uut | de | Stede. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
go | a bit | out | the | side | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Go aside a bit. |
In that case, the partitive noun can be used to modify verbs, nouns and adjectives (cf. above). In case a following content noun is absent but implied, and that implied noun is a count noun, n poor ‘a pair, a few’ is preferred over n bitje ‘a bit’. This is probably due to the elsewhere principle, since n poor is more specific than n bitje. Unlike n bitje, npoor ‘a few’ can only be used with nouns. It cannot be used to modify verbs or adjectives, possibly because it selects a plural count noun. An example is given below:
‘n Poor | Stripse | hät | ju | wisse | fertjoond. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a few | slaps | has | she | sure | deserved | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
She certainly deserved a few slaps. |
Incidentally, this example is interesting since Stripse ‘slaps’ is an inherently plural noun: there is no singular counterpart. Consider next the following example:
Wie | wollen | tousjo, | dät | wie | ‘n poor | Euro | fon dän | Pries | ouakkedierje. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
we | want | to.see | that | we | a few | euro | of the | price | off.bargain | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
We want to see to it that we bargain a few euros off the price. |
Here Euro, which is a measure noun, has a singular form, but it is semantically and constructionally a plural. Some measure nouns have this characteristic that they appear in the singular following numerals and following certain nouns of quantity (which are closely related to numerals): for more information, see .... Consider next the following example:
Iek | noom | eerst | ‘n poor | nodelke | Stappe. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
I | took | first | a couple | anxious | steps | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
First I took a few anxious steps. |
This example makes it clear that the content noun may be premodified by an AP. The example below makes it clear that the construction as a whole, may be postmodified by a quantifier:
‘n Poor | Puunde | minner | kuden | hier | nit | skoadje. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a few | pounds | less | could | here | not | hurt | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
A few pounds less wouldn’t hurt here. |
Note that the measure noun Puund ‘pound’ appears in the plural here, whereas the noun Euro ‘euro’ appeared in the singular in exactly the same construction. Thus it is not the case that all measure nouns behave the same in this respect. Furthermore, Puund may remain singular following a numeral, as in: Fieuw Puund ‘five pound’. In addition, the noun of low quantity may also be followed by a partitive PP instead of a NP:
‘n Poor | fon | do | gjucht | litje. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a couple | of | the | very | small | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
A couple of the very small ones. |
Inside the PP, the nominalised AP serves as the content part of the construction. Consider next the following example:
Säks | Poor | näie | Hozen. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
six | pair | new | socks | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Six pair new socks. |
Here Poor has its basic lexical meaning of ‘a pair of two’. It is preceded by a numeral higher than one, so we should have expected a plural to follow. But Poor ‘a pair of two’ apparently belongs to the class of measure nouns which remains formally a singular following a numeral or a noun of quantity. To sum, n Poor is ambiguous between two readings. It can be a noun of low countable quantity, or it can be a measure noun meaning ‘a pair of two’. The examples discussed here make it clear that the noun of abstract quantity is mostly found in a bare partitive construction, that is, two adjacent NPs not joined together by ful ‘fill’, mäd ‘with’, or similar partitive elements.
Nouns of exact quantity do not provide a relative measure such as Kiste ‘box’ or n Masse ‘a lot’, but they provide an absolute measure, such as Liter ‘litre’, Kilo ‘kilo’. They are direct followed by the NP containing the content noun, that is, there are no partitive elements joining the two NPs together such as ful ‘fill’ or mäd ‘with’. Some examples are given below:
Do | Kisten | wege | twiske | 100 | un | 150 | Kilo. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
the | boxes | weigh | between | 100 | and | 150 | Kilo | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The boxes weigh between 100 and 150 kilos. |
Die | Ommer | hoaldt | tjoon | Liter. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
the | bucket | holds | ten | liter | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The bucket holds ten liters. |
Note that these examples do not involve a content noun following the noun of exact quantity, as the focus is on the exact quantity. What we find is that the noun of exact quantity is often preceded by a numeral, which is also quite exact. The noun of exact quantity does not determine number agreement in case it is in the singular: in that case the content noun, if any, determines the number of the construction as a whole. In this respect, nouns of abstract quantity differ from referential concrete nouns, which do determine number. However, in case the noun of abstract quantity is put in the plural, because of a preceding plural determiner like hundreds, then it does determine the number of the construction as a whole and not the following content noun.
Numeral nouns are nouns which have an exact numerical interpretation, such as n Poor ‘a pair of two’, which was discussed in: Nouns of low quantity. Another example is n Dutsend ‘a dozen’. A further example is given below:
‘n Holich | Stiech | Oaiere. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a half | 20 | eggs | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Ten eggs. |
The word Stieg ‘twenty’ is a word like English dozen ‘twelve’ and West Frisian snies ‘twenty’.
Both the partitive noun and the content noun can be modified by APs. An example is given below:
Gewaltige | Massen | fon | foanbildjende | Plonten | häbe | sik | mäd | do | Jierhunnerte | ansammeld. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
enormous | masses | of | peat.building | plants | have | REFL | with | the | centuries | to.gathered | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Enormous masses of peat producing plants have gathered over the centuries. |
Adjectives modifying the partitive noun are characteristically intensifying adjectives, as in the example above. The two NPs are joined together by the adposition fon ‘of’, which is more likely to be used with a plural partitive noun than with a singular one. The following example makes it clear that a plural partitive noun triggers plural agreement, even if the content noun is singular:
Fjauer | Koaren | ful | Sound | wuden | ienhoald. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
four | carts | full | sand | were | in.take | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Four carts of sand were taken inside. |
Partitive nouns in the singular are characteristically preceded by the indefinite article, though there are also examples with the complex article so n ‘such a’. Sometimes examples can be found with a definite article, the negative article or the universal quantifier, but this also depends on the type of partitive noun. The nature of the partitive noun (purely quantitative or not) strongly affects whether it determines agreement on the verb and its options for premodification. In the singular, some partitive nouns tend to be primarily quantificational, whereas they may be (more) referential in the plural.