
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
Some complementizers and finite verbs with final /-t/ show up with a /t/-less variant when followed by the clitic allomorphs of some personal pronouns. This has led to more or less 'fixed' combinations. They are the subject of this topic.
In Frisian complementizers end in /t/, which is either an integral part of the complementizer or it is the 'conjunction morpheme' t /t/ − written 't −, with which relative and interrogative pronouns and temporal and local adverbs are inflected in case they function as a complementizer. Some complementizers show up without /t/ when combining with the clitic allomorph of some personal pronouns. Overviews of the relevant complementizers and clitics are given in (1) and (2), respectively (see also Visser (1988:206-212)):
The complementizers with a /t/-less variant | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
dat | /dɔt/ | that | [complementizer] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
at | /ɔt/ | as; when; it | [complementizer] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
oft | /ɔt/ | whether | [complementizer] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
dat | /dɔt+t/ | which | [relative pronoun; dat is a demonstrative pronoun] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
dy't | /di+t/ | which | [relative pronoun; dy is a demonstrative pronoun] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
wat | /vɔt+t/ | which | [relative pronoun; wat is an interrogative pronoun] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
doe't | /doe+t/ | when | [doe is a temporal, demonstrative adverb] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
dêr't | /dɛ:r+t/ | where | [dêr is a locative, demonstrative adverb] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
wêr't | /vɛ:r+t/ | where | [wêr is a locative, interrogative adverb] |
The clitics which combine with the /t/-less variants complementizers in (1) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
'k | /k/ | I | (full form: | ik | /ɪk/ | ) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
we | /və/ | we | (full form: | wy | /vi/ | or | wij | /vɛi/ | ) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
je | /jə/ | you (sg, polite) | (full form: | jo | /jo:/ | ) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
jem | /jəm/ | you (pl.) | (full form: | jim(me) | /jɪm(ə)/ | ) |
The modal verb moatte /matə/ must − to be precise, its stem moat /mat/ − joins this pattern. Examples are given in (3). Note that not all sequences in bold are recognized in the official spelling.
Examples of /t/-less complementizers and 'moat' with a clitic | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Se sizze dat 'k | [dɔk] | op ús heit lykje | they say that-I on our father look like | I am said to look like my father | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Dat moat 'k | [mak] | noch in kear neirekkenje | that must-I still a time run through | I have to run through that again | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Hja freget oft we | [ɔvə] | hast klear binne | she asks whether-we almost ready are | She asks whether we have almost finished | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Dat moat we | [mavə] | noch in kear neirekkenje | that must-we still a time run through | That we have to run through again | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Alle boeken dy't je | [dijə] | lêzen hawwe | all the books which-you (sg., polite) read have | All the books which you have read | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Sa moat je | [majə] | net tinke | so must-you (sg., polite) not think | You should not think like that | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
De tiid doe't jem | [dujəm] | noch lyts wienen | the time when-you (pl.) still little were | The time when you were still young | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Wêr moat jem | [majəm] | dat wei helje? | where must-you (pl.) that away fetch | Where do you have to get that from? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
It plak dêr't 'k | [dɛ:k] | hinne moat | the place there I to must | The place I have to go to |
Of the clitics in (2), 'k is the only one without a vowel. This implies that 'k does not add a syllable to the host word it joins, so that sequences like dat 'k en moat 'k end up as monosyllabic. There are limits to the consonant sequences a syllable may accommodate. For reasons of sonority profile, the final sequence /-tk/ of dat 'k /dɔtk/ and moat 'k /matk/ cannot survive. It seems 'logical' that the final /t/ of dat and moat gives in, in favour of /k/, since otherwise the clitic 'k would be lost altogether. This is why the full forms dat and moat can only combine with ik's reduced variant ek /ək/. In that case, however, the /t/-less variants of dat and moat are out, for their amalgamation with vowel-initial ek would create the ill-formed configuration of two word-internal vowels in hiatus (see The resolution of vocalic hiatus): da ek /*dɔək/ and ma ek /*maək/, respectively. Since we, je, and jem are not vowel-initial, they can freely combine with the /t/-less variants, as exemplified in (3).
The forms in (2) above − 'k /k/ I, we /və/ we, je /jə/ you (SG, polite), and jem /jəm/ you (pl., familiar and polite)− all happen to be the clitic allomorphs of the subject form of personal pronouns. That this is not coincidental, is shown by je and jem. These are a) personal pronouns with identical forms for the subject and the object form and b) personal pronouns the forms of which equal those of the related possessive pronouns. Now see the examples in (4):
a. | With je /jə/ 'you (sg., polite)'/'your (idem) | |||||||
Dat je | [dɔtjə] | [dɔjə] | net meidwaan wolle, raast oan'e protters | that you (subject form, sg., polite) not join in want, cries to the starlings | It is a crying shame that you do not want to join in | |||
Dat je | [dɔtjə] | [*dɔjə] | soks op skoalle leard is, docht my gjin nij | that you (object form, sg., polite) such a thing at school taught has been does me no new | It does not surprise me, that you have been taught things like this at school | |||
At je | [ɔtjə] | [*ɔjə] | hûs ferkocht wurdt, dan ... | if your (sg., polite) house sold is, then ... | If your house is sold, then ... | |||
Dat moatt' je | [matjə] | [majə] | net sizze | that must you (subject form, sg., polite) not say | You should not say that | |||
Wy moatt' je | [matjə] | [*majə] | dat ôfriede | we must you (object form, sg., polite) advise against | We have to advise you against that | |||
Wy moatt' je | [matjə] | [*majə] | boar even brûke | we must your (sg., polite) drill a while use | We have to use your drill just for a while |
b. | With jem /jəm/ 'you (pl., familiar and polite)'/'your (idem)' | |||||||
At jem | [ɔtjəm] | [ɔjəm] | net meidogge, dan ... | if you (subject form, pl., familiar and polite) not join in, then ... | If you do not join in, then ... | |||
At jem | [ɔtjəm] | [*ɔjəm] | dit wol wat taliket, doch dan ek mei | if to you (object form, pl., familiar and polite) this all right seems, then also join in | If this seems a good idea to you, then also join in | |||
At jem | [ɔtjəm] | [*ɔjəm] | hûs ferkocht wurdt, dan ... | if your (pl., familiar and polite) house sold is, then ... | If your house is sold, then ... | |||
Dat moatt' jem | [matjəm] | [majəm] | net dwaan | that must you (subject form, pl., familiar and polite) not do | You should not do that | |||
Wy moatt' jem | [matjəm] | [*majəm] | wat fertelle | we must you (object form, pl., familiar and polite) something tell | We have to tell you something | |||
Wy moatt' jem | [matjəm] | [*majəm] | auto even brûke | we must your (pl., familiar and polite) car a while use | We have to use your car just for a while |
There appears to be an asymmetry here between the subject form on the one hand and the object form/possessive pronoun on the other. As yet, there does not seem to be a ready explanation for the above pattern.
The relation between the full form of the complementizers and their /t/-less variant in host word + clitic combinations might be expressed as follows:
A similar statement must be made with respect to the verb moat:
The clitic se/ze /{s/z}ə/ she; they does not combine with /t/-less complementizers and the shortened stem of moatte must. This means that, for instance, combinations like dat se that she, that they; which she, which they, dy't se which she, which they, and moatt' se must she, must they cannot be realized as [*dɔzə], [*dizə], and [*mazə], but only as [dɔtsə], [ditsə], and [matsə]. It should be noted that /z/ is not likely to be preceded by short vowels, like /ɔ/ and /i/ (see The obstruents: the fricatives). The sequence /azə/, however, meets with less reluctance, as shown by the noun hazze /hazə/ hare and the verb-clitic combination ha se /hazə/ have they. The ill-formedness of moatt' se [*mazə] therefore cannot be explained on phonotactic grounds.
- Visser, Willem1988In pear klitisearringsferskynsels yn it FryskDyk, dr. S. & Haan, dr. G.J. (eds.)Wurdfoarried en Wurdgrammatika. In bondel leksikale stúdzjesLjouwertFryske Akademy, Ljouwert175-222
