
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
Double negation is attested both in spoken and written language. Some examples are given below:
a. | Ik hie nearne gjin nocht oan | ||||||||||||||
I had nothing.R no liking to | |||||||||||||||
There was nothing I felt like doing |
b. | Dat er noait net fan God of godstsjinst rept, dat is dom | ||||||||||||||
that he never not of God or religion mentions that is foolish | |||||||||||||||
It is foolish that he never mentions God or religion |
Double negation is frequently found with specific combinations of negative constituents and clause negation, whereas other combinations are very rare.
The following types can be found involving the quantifier of temporal negation noait never as the first element of a pair of two negative constituents:
a. | Der ûntkaam him noait neat | ||||||||||||||
there missed him never nothing | |||||||||||||||
He never missed anything |
b. | Dy leafde dy't dochs noait net stjerre koe | ||||||||||||||
that love that nevertheless never not die could | |||||||||||||||
That love which, nonetheless, could never die |
c. | Ik brûk sels noait gjin drank | ||||||||||||||
I use myself never no alcohol | |||||||||||||||
I never drink alcohol myself |
Examples of type (a) are rare (6x in the Frisian Language Corpus), in which temporal negation is followed by bare inanimate argument negation. Examples of type (b) and (c) are frequent: the temporal negation is followed by clause negation as in (b), or by argument negation followed by overt Noun Phrase (NP) material as in (c). The first negation functions as an intensifer for clause and argument negation. This is particularly clear in the (a) example, in which the temporal negation can be left out, but not the argument negation. The temporal negation nea never is mostly confined to written language. It has the same distribution with respect to double negation as noait never.
The types of examples in (6) involve bare inanimate argument negation as the first element of double negation:
a. | Formulieren ha ik it neat net op stean | ||||||||||||||
forms have I it nothing net on stand | |||||||||||||||
Forms, I don't like at all |
b. | It wiene leave bern, neat net fervelend | ||||||||||||||
it were dear children nothing not annoying | |||||||||||||||
They were good children, not annoying at all |
c. | Hy hie neat gjin oanstriid fan selskip | ||||||||||||||
he had nothing no tendency of company | |||||||||||||||
He did not feel at all like having company |
These examples make it clear that the first negation neat, the bare argument inanimate negation, functions as an intensifier of clause negation and noun negation.
The animate argument negation nimmen nobody can be found in the following types of examples as the first element of double negation:
a. | Mar hy doarst der tsjin nimmen neat fan útlitte | ||||||||||||||
but he dared R against nobody nothing of out.let | |||||||||||||||
But he did not dare tell anybody anything about it |
b. | It bewiis hat nimmen net leverje kinnen | ||||||||||||||
the evidence has nobody not provide could | |||||||||||||||
Nobody has been able to provide the evidence |
c. | Nimmen net kaam op it tinkbyld oft in Frysk frijsteat mooglik wie | ||||||||||||||
nobody not came on the idea whether a Frisian free.state possible was | |||||||||||||||
Nobody struck upon the idea whether a free Frisian state would be a possibility |
d. | Ik doch nimmen gjin oerlêst oan | ||||||||||||||
I do nobody no inconvenience to | |||||||||||||||
I don't cause anybody any inconvenience |
(4a) shows that animate argument negation can be followed by bare argument negation, but the number of examples is small and they belong to older literature, dating mostly to the nineteenth or early twentieth-century. (4b) shows that animate argument can be reinforced by the second element, by clause negation. (4c) shows that animate argument negation and clause negation have optionally been reanalysed as one constituent. Examples of the (b) and (c) type are frequent. The (d) type is rare again, and the examples date back to the nineteenth or early twentieth-century.
Place negation nearne nowhere may appear as the first element of double negation in the following types of examples. Note that place negation is translated as 'nothing' in case it functions as a prepositional complement, as in the (a) example below:
a. | Ik sil de Heare net fergje en nearne net om freegje | ||||||||||||||
I shall the Lord not demand and nothing.R for ask | |||||||||||||||
I shall not demand things from the Lord and not ask for anything |
b. | Der is gjin wetter mear, nearne net kinne se sile | ||||||||||||||
there is no water more nowhere not can they sail | |||||||||||||||
There is no water anymore, nowhere can they sail |
c. | Earst hie hja nearne gjin hâldfêst hân en wie har leauwe swier op 'e proef steld. | ||||||||||||||
first had she nowhere no hold had and was het belief heavily on the pest put | |||||||||||||||
At first, she had not had any hold anywhere and her belief had been severely put to the test |
(5a) and (5b) show that bare place negation can be intensified by a following clause negation. The case in (5b), moreover, shows that place negation and following clause negation are optionally reanalysed as one constituent. (5c) shows that bare place negation may be followed by overt noun negation. Both types are relatively frequent. There is, in addition, one nineteenth-century example of place negation followed by bare argument negation.
The negative conjunct noch nor occasionally conjoins two negative constituents in written language:
a. | Hja moatte nea noch nimmer it sjitlead út 'e hannen lizze | ||||||||||||||
they should never nor never the plummet out the hands lie | |||||||||||||||
They should never ever let go of the plummet |
b. | Fierder te wollen, nea noch nearne rêst te hawwen, oant it kommen wêze sil | ||||||||||||||
further to want never nor nowhere rest to have until it come be shall | |||||||||||||||
To want to go further, to not have any rest ever anywhere, until it will have arrived |
This kind of language is old-fashioned, as is also signalledd by the choice of the temporal quantifiers, which belong to older language.
In addition, the preposition sûnder without may also be found with another negation, as in the following example:
a. | Sûnder boe noch ba sette er ôf | ||||||||||||||
without boo nor ba set he off | |||||||||||||||
He left without saying anything |
Finally, it has been reported that an eastern dialect, the dialect of the eastern part of the municipality of Kollumerlân, may have double clause negation, as in the following example:
a. | Ik wol net datstû sûnder jas bûtendoar omrinst net | ||||||||||||||
I want not that.you without coat outside about.walk net | |||||||||||||||
I don't want you to walk about outside without your coat on |
More details can be found in Hoekstra (2004), Hoekstra (1987) and Tamminga (1963:6-7).
- Hoekstra, Eric2004Neat gjin helemaalFriesch Dagblad11-13Taalgenoat en taalgeniet 52
- Hoekstra, Jarich1987Frysk en AfrikaanskFriesch Dagblad25-07Taalsnipels 42
- Tamminga, Douwe Annes1963Op 'e taelhelling. Losse trochsneden fan Frysk taellibben. IBoalsertA.J. Osinga
