
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
The adverb of manner and degree sa so can be found in Frisian following negation, as in Dutch, which means that it is found in the part of the middle field in which indefinite objects also tend to be found. An example is given below:
Dat is net sa |
that is not so |
That is not the case |
This example represents the unmarked word order, which is neutral with respect to presuppositions. However, unlike Dutch, Frisian has the option of putting the pronominal adverb of manner and degree in the position before negation, as in the following example:
Dat is sa net |
that is so not |
That is not the case |
This order is marked in the sense that it presupposes that the discourse participant may have a contrary opinion, which is contradicted by the utterance in (2). Two uses of the adverb may be distinguished: it may refer to propositions and it may refer to (the degree of) properties of entities like persons and things.
There is considerable evidence for the presuppositional nature of the order in which the adverb precedes clause negation. Examples of this order can be found on the internet and in the Frisian Language Corpus. They are all strongly presuppositional, as is illustrated by two of these examples, which are given below:
a. | Jo miene, dat jo in âld minske yn 'e hûs litten ha, mar dat is sa net | ||||||||||||||
you suppose that you an old person in the house let have but that is so not | |||||||||||||||
You suppose that you let an old person into the house, but that is not the case |
b. | Doe frege de boer 'Smakke it wat?' 'Wol goed', seine wy, mar dat wie sa net | ||||||||||||||
then asked the farmer taste it somewhat yes good said we but that was so not | |||||||||||||||
Then the farmer asked 'Does it taste nice?' 'Yes, it does', we said, but that was not true |
The marked order turns out to be specifically correlated with correcting the set of assumptions of the addressee that is part of the presuppositional context of the speaker. The adverb of manner of degree refers as a pronoun to an assertion or opinion. This order may also show up in tag questions. So either order can be found:
a. | Itensiede is wol ris moai, mar net altyd. Is it net sa? | ||||||||||||||
food.cooking is DcP DcP nice but not always is it not so | |||||||||||||||
Cooking food is nice once in a while, but not always isn't it? |
b. | Itensiede is wol ris moai, mar net altyd. Is it sa net? | ||||||||||||||
food.cooking is DcP DcP nice but not always is it so not | |||||||||||||||
Cooking food is nice once in a while, but not always isn't it? |
The tag question is neutral in (4a). The tag question in (4b) strongly presupposes that the previous assertion is true, and so it is more emphatic.
The pronominal adverb and negation can also be used on their own as a presuppositional negator. The combination of the two items forms a proposition all by itself. They negate a presupposition that is loosely associated to the previous context, and made explicit and negated in the clause following the presuppositional negator. An example is given below:
En Peke moat no en dan oan it ferhaal oer syn ûnderfiningen yn it apelân. Sa net, der wurdt wol avensearre, oars sit der ek gjin stik brea yn |
and Peke must now and then to the story about his experiences in the monkey.country so not there is indeed worked.hard otherwise sits there also no piece bread in |
And Peke is occasionally asked to tell about his experiences in the country of the monkeys. Do not think that they do not work hard. Otherwise they would not earn a living from it |
Here the first clause may give rise to a presupposition that they do not work hard. This presupposition is both made explicit and cancelled by sa net so not > do not think, but the exact nature of the presupposition only becomes clear when the following clause has been uttered. This clause allows the hearer to reconstruct the exact presupposition that is cancelled by the combination of the pronominal adverb and negation. Note how Frisian and English arrive at the intended interpretation. The English translation uses double negation and explicitly invokes what the addressee might think according to the speaker. The Frisian sentence cancels a presupposition ascribed to the addressee, a presupposition which must be reconstructed from the relevant sequence of utterances. Anyhow, this use of sa net so not > do not think refers both backward and forward in a sense. The pair of items must be followed by a clause that explains the use of these two items.
The pronominal adverb refers to an assertion or opinion, that is, to a proposition. However, it may also refer to a proposition denoting the negation of a property, as in the following example:
By sâlte baalder komt der ûnder tsjin de tsjettel in wite laach te sitten, mei farske baalder is dat sa net |
with salt peat comes there under against the kettle a white layer to sit with fresh peat is that so not |
Salt peat gives off a white layer against the bottom of the kettle, fresh peat does not |
In the examples above, the pronominal adverb referred to a proposition.
The pronominal adverb may also refer to a high degree. If this degree involves a property, then it usually involves an ethical degree. The pronominal adverb may be said to refer to the high degree of an ethical predicate in the examples below. This predicate may be paraphrased as either 'good' or 'bad'. The example in (7a) involves the denial of a high degree of badness, whereas the example in (7b) involves the denial of a high degree of goodness:
a. | Ik ken dy, do bist sa net | ||||||||||||||
I know you you are not so | |||||||||||||||
I know you, you are not like that |
b. | In minske is sa net of hy wol de mûle wol ris spielle oer gekken en snaken | ||||||||||||||
a person is so not or he wants the mouth flush about silly.ones and crazy.ones | |||||||||||||||
People are not so noble that they do not occasionally want to speak out against all sorts of silly persons |
The example in (7b) involves a so-called balance construction, which is found in both Frisian and Dutch. It involves a disjunction of which the second disjunct is in the scope of the first in some sense.
Furthermore, the pronominal adverb can also refer to the presupposed degree of whatever is denoted by a verb, as in the following examples:
a. | Hy dy't in slach tabringt, hy piniget jit sa net as falske laster krinkt | ||||||||||||||
he who a stroke out.deals he hurts still so not as mean slander injures | |||||||||||||||
He who deals a blow does not hurt as much as mean slander injures |
b. | Hoannen leine him lang sa net as hinnen | ||||||||||||||
cocks laid him long so not as hens | |||||||||||||||
He could get on with cocks far less than with hens |
c. | Dan waard Edzen mijen en koe of doarste him sa net jaan as oars wol koe | ||||||||||||||
then became Edzen shy en could or dared him so not give as otherwise indeed could | |||||||||||||||
Then Edzen became shy en could not or dared not give himself as much as was possible on other occasions |
These examples all involve the negation of an equative degree, although there is no overt adjective. The equative degree is signalled by the phrase introduced by as as, which provides the standard of comparison. The examples all specify the denial of a high degree of intensity.
