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3.3.2.4.3.Disjunctive coordination (of'or')

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Subsection I will show that constructions in which two NPs coordinated by the disjunctive conjunction of'or' are followed by a relative clause, are often ambiguous between a coordinated antecedent reading, in which the relative clause restricts both conjuncts, and a non-coordinated antecedent reading, in which the relative clause restricts only the second conjunct. Subsection II will show that constructions with a coordinated antecedent reading may be ambiguous in their turn as well, allowing both a one-set and a two-set reading. This gives rise to a three-way ambiguity. Subsection III will discuss disjunctively coordinated antecedents in generic contexts, and Subsection IV will discuss relative constructions in which the conjuncts of the antecedent differ in nominal features. We will complete the discussion in V by drawing a number of general conclusions.

I. Coordinated versus non-coordinated antecedents
- A. Restrictive relative clauses
- B. Non-restrictive relative clauses
II. One-set versus two-set reading (inclusive versus exclusive of'or')
- A. Restrictive relative clauses
- B. Non-restrictive relative clauses
III. Generic/non-generic contexts
- A. Restrictive relative clauses
- B. Non-restrictive relative clauses
IV. Mixed antecedents
V. Conclusion

[+] I. Coordinated versus non-coordinated antecedents

Constructions with NPs coordinated by the conjunction of'or' that are followed by a relative clause often allow both a coordinated and a non-coordinated antecedent reading. The examples in this subsection may receive a analysis similar to the corresponding examples with the conjunction en'and' from Section 3.3.2.4.2, sub I; cf. the discussion of (381) and (387). We should keep in mind, however, that matters are somewhat complicated by the fact that examples with a coordinated antecedent reading sometimes allow two different interpretations, the so-called one-set and two-set readings, which will be discussed in the next subsection.

[+] A. Restrictive relative clauses

If noun phrases are coordinated by means of the disjunctive conjunction of'or' and followed by a restrictive relative clause, ambiguity may arise between a coordinated and a non-coordinated antecedent reading. Whether ambiguity does indeed arise depends on the nature of the conjuncts: if the conjuncts share the same article, only the coordinated antecedent reading is available; if more articles are present, ambiguity may arise for some people. Of course, indefinite plurals are somewhat special given that they have articles that are phonetically empty.

[+] 1. Coordinated indefinite plurals

The examples in (458) show that ambiguity may arise with coordinated indefinite plurals. The scope of the relative clause is indicated by bracketing: in the primeless examples the relative clause restricts both conjuncts, and in the primed ones only the second conjunct. Example (458a), for instance, expresses that any person who is a boy or a girl and who is late will be punished, whereas (458a') expresses that any person who is a boy will be punished, or any person who is a girl and who is late. Similarly, (458b) expresses that we may keep dogs or cats provided that they do not cause much trouble, whereas (458b') expresses that we may keep either cats, or dogs that do not cause much trouble.

458

a.	[Jongens of meisjes	die	te laat	komen],	worden	gestraft.
	boys or girls	who	too late	come	are	punished
	'Boys or girls who are late will be punished.'

a'.

Jongens of [meisjes die te laat komen], worden gestraft.

b.	We	mogen	[katten of honden	die	niet	veel overlast	geven]	houden.
	we	may	cats or dogs	which	not	much trouble	give	keep
	'Weʼre allowed to keep cats or dogs that do not give much trouble.'

b'.

We mogen katten of [honden die niet veel overlast geven], houden.

In speaking, the two readings will be disambiguated by means of intonation. On the coordinated antecedent reading in the primeless examples, the coordinated antecedent is pronounced as a single intonation unit. On the non-coordinated antecedent reading, on the other hand, the conjunction of'or' is preceded by an intonation break and extra emphasis is given to the second head noun (meisjes'girls' and honden'dogs'), while the entire second conjunct, including the relative clause, will be pronounced as a single intonation unit.

[+] 2. Coordinated definite plurals

If the plural conjuncts are definite, as in (459), speakers may have difficulty in obtaining the coordinated antecedent reading in the primeless examples. In this respect the examples with the disjunctive conjunction behave just like the corresponding examples with the conjunction en'and' discussed in 3.3.2.4.2, sub I, example (380).

459

a.	?	[De jongens of de meisjes	die te laat komen],	worden	gestraft.
		the boys or the girls	who too late come	are	punished
		'The boys or the girls who are late will be punished.'

a'.

De jongens of [de meisjes die te laat komen], worden gestraft.

b.	?	We	mogen	[de katten of de honden	die niet veel overlast geven],	houden.
		we	may	the cats or the dogs	which not much trouble give	keep
		'Weʼre allowed to keep the cats or the dogs which donʼt give much trouble.'

b'.

We mogen de katten of [de honden die niet veel overlast geven], houden.

Just as in the case of coordination with en'and', the fact that the primeless examples in (459) are marked may be related to the fact that these examples compete with the examples in (460a&b), in which the two conjuncts share the same article. Section 3.3.2.4.2, sub I has shown that examples with a single article may be preferred given that they can be analyzed without postulating any elided material. Coordinated plurals with a single definite article do not allow the exclusive reading; the account given in Section 3.3.2.4.2, sub III, for the corresponding examples with en'and' can also be applied to these examples.

460

a.		[De jongens of meisjes	die te laat komen],	worden	gestraft.
		the boys or girls	who too late come	are	punished

a'.

De jongens of [meisjes die te laat kwamen], werden gisteren gestraft.

b.		We	mogen	[de honden of katten	die niet veel overlast geven],	houden.
		we	may	the dogs or cats	which not much trouble give	keep

b'.

We mogen de honden of [katten die niet veel overlast geven], houden.

[+] 3. Coordinated indefinite singulars

The examples in (461) show that in the case of coordinated indefinite singulars the non-coordinated antecedent reading is available, provided at least that the two conjuncts have the same gender; see Subsection IVA for cases in which the gender is different. The non-coordinated antecedent readings are harder to obtain. Note that these examples only allow a generic interpretation.

461

a.	[Een scholier of een student	die zich heeft ingeschreven],	krijgt	korting.
	a pupil or a student	who refl has registered	gets	discount
	'A pupil or a student who has registered gets a reduction.'

a'.

Een scholier of [een student die zich heeft ingeschreven], krijgt korting.

b.	[Een leraar of een leerling	die te laat komt],	wordt	gestraft.
	a teacher or a student	who too late comes	is	punished
	'A teacher or a student who is late will be punished.'

b'.

Een leraar of [een leerling die te laat komt] wordt gestraft.

The two conjuncts may also share the indefinite article. Example (462a) shows that the coordinated antecedent reading is fully acceptable, and, in fact, it may be the case that this generic example is even more natural than the generic examples in (461a&b). Example (462b) shows that the coordinated noun phrase can also be given a specific interpretation. In this use, the coordinated noun phrase refers to a single person; the speaker refers to a specific person but does not know whether that person is a pupil or a student. For this reason, the restrictive relative clause must be construed with both conjuncts, which accounts for the unacceptability of the non-coordinated antecedent reading in the primed example. If we assume that the generic example in (462a) has a similar indeterminacy, we also account for the impossibility of the non-coordinated antecedent reading in (462a').

462

a.	[Een student of scholier	die zich heeft ingeschreven],	krijgt	altijd	korting.
	a student or pupil	who refl has registered	gets	always	discount
	'A student or pupil who has registered always gets a reduction.'

a'.

Een student of [scholier die zich heeft ingeschreven], krijgt altijd korting.

b.	[Een student of scholier	die zich had ingeschreven],	kreeg	daar	korting.
	a student or pupil	who refl had registered	got	there	discount
	'A student or pupil who has registered got a reduction there.'

b'.

Een student of [scholier die zich had ingeschreven], kreeg daar korting.

[+] 4. Coordinated definite singulars

As in the case of coordinated definite plural, the coordinated antecedent reading is not accepted by all speakers. The non-coordinated antecedent reading, on the other hand, is fully acceptable.

463

a.	?	[De scholier of de student	die zich heeft ingeschreven],	krijgt	korting.
		the student or the pupil	who refl has registered	gets	discount
		'The pupil or the student who has registered gets a reduction.'

a'.

De scholier of [de student die zich heeft ingeschreven], krijgt korting.

b.	?	[De leraar of de leerling	die te laat komt]	wordt	gestraft.
		the teacher or the student	who too late comes	is	punished
		'The teacher or the student who is late will be punished.'

b'.

De leraar of [de leerling die te laat is] wordt gestraft.

Example (464a) shows that generic examples like (463a&b) improve if the two conjuncts share the same article. The non-coordinated antecedent reading in (464a'&b'), on the other hand, is completely excluded. The coordinated noun phrase in (464b) refers to a single individual, of whom the speaker does not know whether he is a pupil or a student. For this reason, the restrictive relative clause must be construed with both conjuncts, which accounts for the unacceptability of (463b'). If we assume that the generic example in (464a) has a similar indeterminacy, we also account for the impossibility of the non-coordinated antecedent reading in (464a').

464

a.	[De student of scholier	die zich heeft ingeschreven],	krijgt	korting.
	the student or pupil	who refl has registered	gets	discount
	'The student or pupil who has registered will get a reduction.'

a'.

De student of [scholier die zich heeft ingeschreven], krijgt korting.

b.		[De student of scholier	die zich had ingeschreven],	kreeg	korting.
		the student or pupil	who refl had registered	got	discount

b'.

De student of [scholier die zich had ingeschreven], kreeg korting.

[+] B. Non-restrictive relative clauses

If two elements are coordinated by means of of'or' and followed by a non-restrictive relative clause, ambiguity may arise between a coordinated and a non-coordinated antecedent reading. As in the case of restrictive relative clauses, the question as to whether ambiguity does indeed arise depends on the nature of the two conjuncts: if the conjuncts share the same article, only the coordinated antecedent reading is available; if more articles are present, ambiguity arises. Indefinite plurals are somewhat special given that they have articles that are phonetically empty.

[+] 1. Coordinated indefinite plurals

With coordinated indefinite plurals both readings seem available, although the coordinated antecedent reading seems to be preferred. Note that the primeless examples involving inclusive of'or' are semantically more or less equivalent to the corresponding construction with the conjunction en'and', which may be preferred by some speakers.

465

a.	[Studenten of scholieren,	die weinig geld hebben],	krijgen	korting.
	students or pupils	who little money have	get	discount
	'Students or pupils, who have little money, get a reduction.'

a'.

Studenten of [scholieren, die weinig geld hebben], krijgen korting.

b.	We	mogen	[honden of katten,	die niet veel overlast geven],	houden.
	we	may	dogs or cats	which not much trouble give	keep
	'Weʼre allowed to keep dogs or cats, which donʼt give much trouble.'

b'.

We mogen honden of [katten, die niet veel overlast geven] houden.

[+] 2. Coordinated definite plurals

With coordinated plurals with two definite articles, the two readings seem to be equally acceptable. Again, some speakers may find the primeless examples somewhat marked compared to the corresponding constructions with en'and'.

466

a.	[De studenten of de scholieren,	die weinig geld hebben],	krijgen	korting.
	the students or the pupils	who little money have	get	discount
	'The students or the pupils, who have little money, get a reduction.'

a'.

De studenten of [de scholieren, die weinig geld hebben], krijgen korting.

b.	We	mogen	[de honden of de katten,	die niet veel overlast geven],	houden.
	we	may	the dogs or the cats	which not much trouble give	keep
	'Weʼre allowed to keep the cats or the dogs, which donʼt give much trouble.'

b'.

We mogen de honden of [de katten, die niet veel overlast geven], houden.

If the two conjuncts share the same definite article, the result is always marginal at best. The non-coordinated antecedent reading is completely excluded when the sentence is unambiguously non-generic, as in (467b').

467

a.	?	[De studenten of scholieren,	die weinig geld hebben],	krijgen	korting.
		the students or pupils	who little money have	get	discount
		'The students or pupils, who donʼt have much money, get a reduction.'

a'.	*	De studenten	of	[scholieren,	die weinig geld hebben],	krijgen	korting.
		the students	or	pupils	who little money have	get	discount
		'The students or pupils, who donʼt have much money, get a reduction.'

b.	?	[De studenten of scholieren,	die weinig geld hadden],	kregen	korting.
		the students or pupils	who little money had	got	discount
		'The students or pupils, who didnʼt have much money, got a reduction.'

b'.	*	De studenten	of	[scholieren,	die niet weinig hadden],	kregen	korting.
		the students	or	pupils	who little money had	got	discount

[+] 3. Coordinated indefinite singulars

The examples in (468) show that in the case of coordinated indefinite singulars the non-coordinated antecedent reading is available, provided at least that the two conjuncts have the same gender; see Subsection IVA for cases in which the gender is different. The non-coordinated antecedent readings seem somewhat harder to obtain.

468

a.	[Een student of een scholier,	die weinig geld	heeft/hebben],	krijgt korting.
	a student or a pupil	who little money	has/have	gets discount
	'A student or a pupil, who has/have little money, gets a reduction.'

a'.

Een student of [een scholier, die weinig geld heeft], krijgt korting.

b.	We mogen	[een hond of een kat,	die niet veel overlast geeft/geven],	houden.
	we may	a dog or a cat	which not much trouble gives/give	keep
	'Weʼre allowed to keep a dog or a cat, which doesnʼt give much trouble.'

b'.

We mogen een hond of [een kat, die niet veel overlast geeft], houden.

With indefinite singular antecedents, the two conjuncts may also share the indefinite article. The coordinated antecedent reading is fully acceptable, and, in fact, it may be the case that the generic example in (469a) is even more natural than the generic example in (468a). Note in passing that, although judgments are again delicate, it seems that use of the plural form of the finite verb in the relative clause is not possible in (469a). The preferred interpretation of (469a) is generic, but (469b) shows that the coordinated noun phrase can also be given a specific interpretation, in which case it refers to a single person; the speaker refers to a specific person but does not know whether that person is a pupil or a student. For this reason, the restrictive relative clause must be construed with both conjuncts. If we assume that the generic example in (469a) has a similar indeterminacy, we also account for the impossibility of the non-coordinated antecedent reading in (469a').

469

a.	[Een student of scholier,	die weinig geld heeft],	krijgt	altijd	korting.
	a student or pupil	who little money has	gets	always	discount
	'A student or pupil, who has little money, always gets a reduction.'

a'.

Een student of [scholier, die weinig geld heeft], krijgt altijd korting.

b.	[Een student of scholier,	die weinig geld had],	kreeg	gisteren	korting.
	a student or pupil	who little money had	got	yesterday	discount
	'A student or pupil, who had little money, got a reduction yesterday.'

b'.

Een student of [scholier, die weinig geld had], kreeg gisteren korting.

[+] 4. Coordinated definite singulars

The non-generic examples in (470) are all acceptable. The coordinated constructions with a single definite article in (471), on the other hand, are more restricted: they are perhaps marginally possible in a generic context like (471a); if the coordinated noun phrase has a specific reading, as in (471b), the result is bad. The non-coordinated antecedent reading in the primed examples is also ungrammatical.

470

a.	[De student of de scholier,	die (allebei) weinig geld hebben],	krijgt	korting.
	the student or the pupil	who both little money have	gets	discount
	'The student or the pupil, who (both) have little money, gets a reduction.'

a'.

De student of [de scholier, die niet zo veel geld heeft], krijgt korting.

b.	We mogen	[de hond of de kat,	die (beide) niet veel overlast geven],	houden.
	we may	the dog or the cat	which both not much trouble give	keep
	'Weʼre allowed to keep the dog or the cat, which (both) donʼt give much trouble.'

b'.

We mogen de hond of [de kat, die niet veel overlast geeft], houden.

471

a.	??	[De student of scholier,	die niet zo veel geld heeft],	krijgt	altijd	korting.
		the student or pupil	who not so much money has	gets	always	discount
		'The student or pupil, who didnʼt have much money, always gets a reduction.'

a'.

De student of [scholier, die weinig geld heeft], krijgt altijd korting.

b.	*	[De student of schoier,	die weinig geld had],	kreeg	gisteren	korting.
		the student or pupil	who little money had	got	yesterday	discount

b'.

De student of [scholier, die weinig geld had], kreeg gisteren korting.

[+] II. One-set versus two-set reading (inclusive versus exclusive of'or')

Examples with a coordinated antecedent reading are often ambiguous due to the fact that the disjunctive conjunction of'or' allows two readings. These two readings, the inclusive, one-set reading and the exclusive, two-set reading, can be described as in (472). We will see in the two subsections below that the ambiguity arises with both restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses.

472

Inclusive of (one-set reading): The denotation of [N1 of N2] involves a single set, the members of which are either N1 or N2; the relative clause modifies this single set and the predicate in the main clause holds for this single set.Inclusive of (one-set reading): The denotation of [N1 of N2] involves a single set, the members of which are either N1 or N2; the relative clause modifies this single set and the predicate in the main clause holds for this single set.

Exclusive óf (two-set reading): The denotation of [N1 of N2] involves two separate sets, one set whose members are N1 and one set whose members are N2: the relative clause is interpreted in such a way that it modifies each set separately, and the predicate in the main holds for only one of these sets.Exclusive óf (two-set reading): The denotation of [N1 of N2] involves two separate sets, one set whose members are N1 and one set whose members are N2: the relative clause is interpreted in such a way that it modifies each set separately, and the predicate in the main holds for only one of these sets.

The two types of of differ in that exclusive óf is often stressed, which is indicated by an accent, which is normally not found in written language, and can be replaced by the discontinuous disjunction óf ... óf ...'either ... or ...'; inclusive of, on the other hand, is normally not stressed, accent falling on the new information in the relative clause, and cannot be replaced by the discontinuous disjunction.

[+] A. Restrictive relative clauses

The availability of the inclusive (one-set), and the exclusive (two-set) reading depends on the nature of the coordinated antecedent of the relative clause. First, consider example (473a), in which the antecedent is a definite coordinated noun phrase with a single article. This example only yields the inclusive reading due to the fact that we are dealing with a single DP, and hence there is only a single referent set. That exclusive óf cannot be used DP-internally is also clear from the fact illustrated in (473b) that use of the discontinuous disjunction óf ... óf ...'either ... or ...' leads to ungrammaticality.

473

a.	De [NP	[jongens of meisjes]i	diei	te laat	komen],	worden	gestraft.
	the	boys or the girls	who	too late	come	are	punished
	'The boys or the girls who are late will be punished.'

De [NP [óf jongens óf meisjes]i diei te laat komen], worden gestraft.

Now compare example (473a) to example (474a), in which each conjunct is associated with its own article. The preferred reading for this (marked) construction is the exclusive reading, which is consistent with the fact illustrated by (474b) that the disjunctive conjunction can be replaced by the discontinuous disjunction of ... óf'either ... or', which unambiguously shows that exclusive óf can be used to coordinate DPs. If these examples are indeed grammatical, they are plausibly derived by means of backward conjunction reduction. Recall from Subsection I that it is actually the non-coordinated antecedent reading which is best.

474

a.	%	[De jongens die te laat komen]	óf	[de meisjes	die te laat komen],	worden	gestraft.
		the boys	or	the girls	who too late come	are	punished

b.	%	Óf de jongens óf de meisjes	die te laat komen,	worden	gestraft.
		either the boys or the girls	who too late come	are	punished
		'Either the boys or the girls who are late will be punished.'

For the coordinated definite singulars in (475a) the exclusive reading is also clearly preferred to the inclusive reading, although, again, it is the non-coordinated antecedent reading that is actually best. Note that, for convenience, we will no longer indicate the elided relative clause in the first conjunct.

475

a.	%	De student óf de scholier	die zich heeft ingeschreven,	krijgt	de vrijkaart.
		the pupil or the student	who refl has registered	gets	the free ticket

b.	%	Óf de student óf de scholier	die zich heeft ingeschreven,	krijgt	de vrijkaart.
		either the pupil or the student	who refl has registered	gets	the free ticket
		'Either the pupil or the student who registered will get the free ticket.'

Although, for reasons to be discussed in Subsection III, the inclusive reading is highly preferred in the case of coordinated indefinites as in (476), the exclusive reading seems to be marginally possible as well. On the first reading, the sentence expresses that there is a single antecedent set, whose members are either boys or girls, and it is predicated of the members of this set who are late that they will be punished. On the second reading, there are two sets of person that are late consisting of, respectively, boys and girls, and the sentence expresses that only the members of one of these sets will be punished. The ambiguity arises due to the fact that the word order is compatible both with assuming that of coordinates some noun phrase internal projection and with assuming that it coordinates DPs.

476

a.	Jongens of meisjes	die te laat komen,	worden gestraft,	maar niet hun ouders.
	boys or girls	who too late come	are punished	but not their parents
	'Boys or girls who are late will be punished, but their parents wonʼt.'

b.	??	(Óf) jongens óf meisjes	die te laat komen,	worden	gestraft.
		boys or girls	who too late come	are	punished
		'Boys or girls who are late will be punished.'

Coordinated singulars with two indefinite articles seem to behave in ways essentially similar to their plural counterparts, the only difference being that the sets in question consist of only one member: example (477a) illustrates the inclusive reading, and (477b) illustrates the exclusive reading. The two coordinated definite singulars in (477a) form a one-member set interpretation with a generic reading: any pupil or student who has registered will be given a complimentary ticket. In (477b), on the other hand, two one-member sets are coordinated, with the relative clause restricting both elements separately. The predication in the main clause, however, holds for only one of these sets: “either a pupil who has enrolled will receive the free ticket, or a student who has enrolled”.

477

a.	Een scholier of een student	die zich heeft ingeschreven,	krijgt	een vrijkaart.
	a pupil or a student	who refl has registered	gets	a free.ticket
	'A pupil or a student who has registered will get a complimentary ticket.'

b.	(Óf) een scholier	óf	een student	die zich heeft ingeschreven,	krijgt	de vrijkaart.
	either a pupil	or	a student	who refl has registered	gets	the free.ticket
	'Either a pupil or a student who has registered will get the free ticket.'

Coordinated singulars with one indefinite article allow only the inclusive reading, which is clear from the fact that the disjunctive conjunction cannot be replaced by the discontinuous disjunction of ... óf'either ... or'. In this respect they behave like the coordinated plurals with a single definite article in (473). Note that some speakers may prefer the generic example in (478a) to the one in (477a).

478

Coordinated singulars with one indefinite article (same gender)

a.	Een scholier of student	die zich heeft ingeschreven,	krijgt	een vrijkaart.
	a pupil or student	who refl has registered	gets	a free.ticket
	'A pupil or a student who has registered will get the complimentary ticket.'

b.	*	(Óf) een scholier	óf student	die zich heeft ingeschreven,	krijgt de vrijkaart.
		either a pupil	or a student	who refl has registered	gets the free.ticket
		'Either a pupil or a student who has registered will get the complimentary ticket.'

The discussion above suggests that the exclusive (two-set) and the inclusive (one-set) reading may involve coordination at different levels. The exclusive reading arises from the structure in (479a), which involves coordination at the level of DP and some form of backward conjunction reduction, whereas the inclusive reading involves coordination of projections within the noun phrase (NP or NumP); see Section 3.3.2.4.2, sub II, for a discussion of these analyses.

479

[DP D [NP [... N ...]i [RC1RELi ... ti ... ]]] of

[DP D [NP [... N...]j [RC2 RELj ... tj ... ]]]

[DP D [NP [[ ... N ...] of [ ...N ...]]i [RC RELi ... ti ... ]]]

[+] B. Non-restrictive relative clauses

Ambiguity between the inclusive (one-set) and the exclusive (two-set) reading may also arise in non-restrictive relative clause constructions. As in the case of the restrictive relative clauses the availability of the two readings depends on the nature of the coordinated antecedent of the relative clause. If we are dealing with coordinated plurals with a single definite article, only the inclusive reading is available. As in the case of restrictive relative clauses, this is not surprising given that we are dealing with a single DP and hence there is only a single referent set. This is compatible with our earlier conclusion that exclusive óf cannot be used DP-internally given that use of the discontinuous disjunction óf ... óf ...'either ... or ...' leads to ungrammaticality. Note that some speakers may find examp