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This section gives an overview of how inflection and derivation, compounding, the ordering of words in syntax, and assimilatory processes may yield the juxtaposition of two identical consonants, which results in fake geminates.
Inflection and derivation, compounding, the ordering of words in syntax, and assimilatory processes may yield the juxtaposition of two identical consonants, which results in fake geminates. Examples of word-internal fake geminates resulting from inflection and derivation are given in (1):
| Examples of word-internal fake geminates, resulting from inflection and derivation | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| a. | Resulting from inflection | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| (hy) lit | /lɪt+t/ | (he) lets | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| (do) past | /pɔs+st/ | (you) try on | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| (hy) wjudde | /vjød+də/ | (he) weeded | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| (hy) wrotte | /vrot+tə/ | (he) plodded, slaved (away) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| (hy hat) wrot | /vrot+t/ | (he has) plodded, slaved (away) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| (it) dwerst | /dwɛs+st/ | most transverse; most crossgrained | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| b. | Resulting from derivation | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| smoutte | /smɔwt+tə/ | lee, shelter | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| katsje | /kɔt+tsjə/ | kitten; catkin | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| ferrinne | /fər+rɪnə/ | to (e)lapse | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| ûnnut | /un+nøt/ | useless | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| ûnttize | /unt+ti:zə/ | to disentangle, to unravel | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Examples of fake geminates in compound-like structures and in true compounds are given in (2):
| Examples of fake geminates in compound-like structures and in true compounds | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| a. | In compound-like structures | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| willeas | /vɪl+lɪ.əz/ | weak-willed | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| misset | /mɪs+sɛt/ | slip | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| b. | In particle verbs | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| dellizze | /dɛl+lɪzə/ | to lay down | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| foarroppe | /foər+ropə/ | to summon | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| ynnûgje | /in+nu:ɣjə/ | to invite (to come) in | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| oannimme | /oən+nɪmə/ | to accept; to assume | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| oerrinne | /uər+rɪnə/ | to overflow | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| ommalkje | /om+mɔlkjə/ | to change all the time (of the wind) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| úttinje | /yt+tɪnjə/ | to thin (out) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| c. | In compounds | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| fjoerread | /fjuər#rɪəd/ | crimson | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| smoarryk | /smoər#rik/ | (extremely) wealthy | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| spierrjocht | /spiər#rjoxt/ | dead straight | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| bûssint | /bus#sɪnt/ | pocket money | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| fallûk | /fɔl#luk/ | trapdoor | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| jierrekken | /jiər#rɛkən/ | annual report | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nachttút | /naxt#tyt/ | good-night kiss | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| noassnute | /noəs#snytə/ | to blow one's nose | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| sipellucht | /sipəl#løxt/ | smell of onions | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| skierroek | /skiər#ruk/ | hooded crow | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| slieppil | /sliəp#pɪl/ | sleeping pill | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| spekkeaper | /spɛk#kɪəpər/ | one who is not short in money | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| tinkkrêft | /tɪŋk#krɛ:ft/ | mental power, power of thought | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| waskkoer | /vɔsk#kuər/ | (dirty) clothes basket | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| winkellju | /vɪŋkəl#ljø/ | shopkeepers | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Examples of fake geminates due to words meeting in syntax are given in (3):
| Examples of fake geminates arising in syntax | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| syn nûmer | /sin numər/ | his number | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| hy hie de faam mei | /fa:m maj/ | he was there together with his girlfriend | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| it wurdt sa allegear wol let | /vol lɛt/ | things are getting quite late this way | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| mei sa'n wyn wol de boat raar rôlje | /ra:r rɔ:ljə/ | with so much wind the ship is prone to roll heavily | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| in nij pak klean | /pak klɪən/ | a new suit | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| omdat se altyd sa rap praat | /rap pra:t/ | because she always talks so rapidly | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| moatst it sels sjen | /sɛls sjɛn/ | you have to see it yourself | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Adjacent consonants which differ in underlying representation may become identical as a result of phonological processes. These processes thus feed degemination. A case in point is final devoicing, examples of which are given in the following table:
| In compounds | In phrases |
| sleeffol /sle:v#fol/ → /sle:ffol/ ladlefull | goed timmere /-d t-/ → /-t t-/ well built |
| lûdticht /lu:d#tɪxt/ → /lu:ttɪxt/ soundproof | geef Frysk /-v f-/ → /-f f-/ good Frisian |
| wrâldtaal /vrɔ:d#ta:l/ → /vrɔ:tta:l/ world language | seis sinten /-z s-/ → /-s s-/ six cents |
| reidtûfe /rajd#tufə/ → /rajttufə/ reed tuft | de nije slaab passe /-b p-/ → /-p p-/ to try on the new bib |
| reisselskip /rajz#sɛlskɪp/ → /rajssɛlskɪp/ touring group | |
| priissjonge /pri:z#sjoŋə/ → /pri:ssjoŋə/ take part in a singing competition | |
| tsiisskaaf /tsi:z#skaaf/ → /tsi:sska:f/ cheese slicer | |
| turfflok /tørv#flɔk/ → /tørfflɔk/ fibrous part of peat |
As is to be expected, assimilatory processes (see assimilation) are another important source of sequences of identical consonants; examples are given in the following section.
| Obstruent adaptation in inflected and derived forms |
| (hja) riidt /ri:d+t/ → /ri:tt/ (she) drives |
| (hy) hâldt oan /hɔ:d+t/ → /hɔ:tt/ (he) holds on to |
| (do) raast /ra:z+st/ → /ra:sst/ (you) rage, rave |
| (it) kreast /krɪəz+st/ → /krɪəsst/ most good-looking |
| wurdsje /vød+tsjə/ → /vøttsjə/ (little) word |
| Regressive Voice Assimilation in particle verbs |
| opbine /op+binə/ → /obbinə/ to tie up |
| opblaze /op+bla:zə/ → /obbla:zə/ to blow up |
| útdiele /yt+diələ/ → /yddiələ/ to hand out |
| fuortdrave /fwot+dravə/ → /fwoddra:və/ to run away |
| Regressive Voice Assimilation in compounds and compound-like structures |
| stjonkgat /stjoŋk#ɡɔt/ → /stjoŋɡɡɔt/ hole which stinks |
| wrakguod /vrak#ɡwod/ → /vraɡɡwot/ rickety pottery |
| wipbrêge /vɪp#brɛ:ɣə/ → /vɪbbrɛ:ɣə/ lift bridge |
| sleepboat /sle:p#boət/ → /sle:bboət/ tugboat |
| slútdaam /slyt#da:m/ → /slydda:m/ dam |
| skutdoar /skøt#doər/ → /skøddoər/ lock gate |
| raspboerd /rɔsp#buəd/ → /rɔzbbuət/ board used for a certain game |
| rêstdei /rɛ:st#daj/ → /rɛ:zddaj/ rest day |
| waskguod /vɔsk#ɡwod/ → /vɔzɡɡwod/ wash, laundry |
| ûntdekke /unt#dɛkə/ → /unddɛkə/ to discover |
| Regressive Voice Assimilation in phrases |
| it sop behimmelje /-p b-/ → /-b b-/ eat the soup |
| de wisp baarnt /-p b-/ → /-b b-/ the torch is burning |
| net dwaan! /-t d-/ → /-d d-/ do not (do that) |
| in test dwaan /-t d-/ → /-d d-/ do a test |
| in tekst dwaan /-t d-/ → /-d d-/ deal with a text |
| oer in taak gear /-k ɡ-/ → /-ɡ ɡ-/ doing a task |
| oer de fisk gear /-k ɡ-/ → /-ɡ ɡ-/ prepare the fish |
| Regressive Place Assimilation in particle verbs |
| ynmealle /in#mjɛlə/ → /immjɛlə/ to pump water from outside into the polder |
| oanmoanje /oən#mwanjə/ → /oəmmwanjə/ to urge |
| Regressive Place Assimilation in compounds and compound-like structures |
| wynmole /vin#mo:lə/ → /vimmo:lə/ windmill |
| wynmoanne /vin#mwanə/ → /vimmwanə/ October (lit. 'wine month') |
| ûnmacht /un#maxt/ → /ummaxt/ powerlessness |
| Regressive Place Assimilation in phrases |
| hja naam wyn mei /-n m-/ → /-m m-/ she brought along wine |
| doch har sin mar /-n m-/ → /-m m-/ just do as she wishes |
| hy hâldt fan muzyk /-n m-/ → /-m m-/ he likes music |
| Progressive Voice Assimilation |
| omdat de trein in oere fertraging hie /-t d-/ → /-t t-/ because the train had a delay of an hour |
| wannear't der praat wurdt /-t d-/ → /-t t-/ when people talk (about it) |
| witst wol wat dat wurd betsjut? /-t d-/ → /-t t-/ do you know what that word means? |
| it praat dat er altyd hat /-t d-/ → /-t t-/ the things he always talks about |
| ik wit net wat dy mannen besielet /-t d-/ → /-t t-/ I do not know what has come over those men |
| hiest do dat wier net sjoen? /-t d-/ → /-t t-/ had not you really seen that? |
| hoe komt dit no wer? /-t d-/ → /-t t-/ how on earth díd this happen? |
| dat stiet dêr al jierren /-t d-/ → /-t t-/ that has stood there for years |
| hy leit dus alle funksjes del /-t d-/ → /-t t-/ so he resigns all his offices |
| hy rint dan alles om sa'n boek ôf /-t d-/ → /-t t-/ he then searches high and low in order to find such a book |
| wêrom hat er dat doe net sein? /-t d-/ → /-t t-/ why didn't he say that then? |
| Exceptional cases of assimilation |
| treppot [trɛpɔt] < trekpot /trɛk#pɔt/ teapot |
| fiif menuten [fimənytn] < /fiim mənytən/ < /fi:v menytən/ five minutes (used as a unit of time) |
Frisian does not have double consonants. Fake geminates therefore can only consist of consonants which can occur in both the syllable coda and the syllable onset. Since /ŋ/ (see the dorsal nasal /ŋ/) and /x/ (see the dorsal obstruents) only occur in the coda and /h/ (see the glottal fricative /h/) and /ɡ/ (see the dorsal obstruents) only occur in the onset, they do not figure in fake geminates. The latter, however, may occur with [ɡ], as a result of Regressive Voice Assimilation (see regressive voice assimilation: type 1), examples of which are stjonkgat /stjoŋk#ɡɔt/ → /stjoŋɡɡɔt/ hole which stinks, wrakguod /vrak#ɡwod/ → /vraɡɡwot/ rickety pottery, oer in taak gear /-k ɡ-/ → /-ɡ ɡ-/ doing a task, and oer de fisk gear /-k ɡ-/ → /-ɡ ɡ-/ prepare the fish.
/ŋ/ and /x/ may be realized as ambisyllabic, as in angel /aŋəl/ [(aŋ)(ŋəl)] fishin rod, fishing pole and richel /rɪxəl/ [(rɪx)(xəl)] ledge; lath, in which they occur in both the coda and the onset. Their occurrence in the onset here is licensed by the link with the coda.
