- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- General
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- General
- Phonology
- Afrikaans phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The alveolar fricative /s/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological processes
- Vowel related processes
- Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Phonotactics
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Afrikaans syntax
- Nouns and noun phrases
- Characteristics of the NP
- Classification of nouns
- Complementation of NPs
- Modification of NPs
- Binominal and partitive constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Partitive constructions with nominalised quantifiers
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Binominal name constructions
- Binominal genitive constructions
- Bare nominal attribution
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- Syntactic uses of the noun phrase
- Adjectives and adjective phrases
- Characteristics and classification of the AP
- Complementation of APs
- Modification and Degree Quantification of APs
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution of APs
- Predication of APs
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use of APs
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Verbs and verb phrases
- Characterisation and classification
- Argument structure
- Verb frame alternations
- Complements of non-main verbs
- Verb clusters
- Complement clauses
- Adverbial modification
- Word order in the clause: Introduction
- Word order in the clause: position of the finite Verb
- Word order in the clause: Clause-initial position
- Word order in the clause: Extraposition and right-dislocation in the postverbal field
- Word order in the middle field
- Emphatic constructions
- Adpositions and adposition phrases
This section deals with a set of non-main lexical verbs, known in the Afrikaans grammar tradition as direct linking verbs, which have aspectual, causal, experiential and other functions in regard to the main verb, or express movement in relation to the speaker, e.g.:
| a. | Die gaste begin dans. | ||||||||||||||
| the guests begin.LINK dance.INF | |||||||||||||||
| The guests begin to dance. | |||||||||||||||
| b. | Die petrolprys bly maar styg. | ||||||||||||||
| the petrol.price keep.on.LINK only rise.INF | |||||||||||||||
| The petrol price only keeps rising. | |||||||||||||||
| c. | Die orkes hou op (met) speel. | ||||||||||||||
| the orchestra hold up.LINK with play.INF/NMLZ | |||||||||||||||
| The orchestra stops playing. | |||||||||||||||
| d. | Sy hoor die telefoon lui. | ||||||||||||||
| she hear.LINK the telephone ring.INF | |||||||||||||||
| She hears the telephone ringing. | |||||||||||||||
| e. | Tienie laat die TV regmaak. | ||||||||||||||
| Tienie let.LINK the TV repair.INF | |||||||||||||||
| Tienie has the TV repaired. | |||||||||||||||
| f. | Die bure het kom groet, want hulle gaan vakansie hou. | ||||||||||||||
| the neighbours have.AUX come.LINK greet.INF because.CNJ they go.PRS holiday keep.INF | |||||||||||||||
| The neighbours have come to say goodbye as they are going on holiday. | |||||||||||||||
Also cf.
- description of linking verbs
- inchoative linking verbs
- durative linking verbs
- terminative linking verbs
- experiential linking verbs
- causative linking verbs
- other linking verbs
- verbs of motion
A small set of lexical verbs combining with other lexical verbs in a clause not only contribute semantically to the clause, but contribute functions such as aspect, sense perspective, deictic perspective and causality to the clause. The traditional term in Afrikaans linguistics is direct linking verb (direkte skakelwerkwoord), contrasting syntactically with postural verbs and the verb of motionloop to walk, go by not being linked to the main verb by particle en and. This category of verbs is also discussed by Ponelis (1979:244-245) and Van Schoor (1983:167-172). These verbs either share fully or only partially in the argument structure of the main verb. Thus in (2a) bly to keep on, continue and terugveg to fight back share the same agent, while in (2b) the experiencer of laat to let, cause to is the agent of optel to pick up.
| a. | Die vyand bly terugveg. | ||||||||||||||
| the enemy keep.on.LINK back.fight.INF | |||||||||||||||
| The enemy keeps on fighting back. | |||||||||||||||
| b. | Die bestuur laat die skoonmakers die papiere optel. | ||||||||||||||
| the management let.LINK the cleaners the papers up.pick.INF | |||||||||||||||
| Management lets the cleaners pick up the papers. | |||||||||||||||
Verbs expressing inchoative aspect in some of their senses are gaan to go, kom to come, begin to begin, loop to go, walk, laat to let:
| a. | Hulle gaan werk in die stad. | ||||||||||||||
| they go.LINK work.INF in the city | |||||||||||||||
| They go to work in town. | |||||||||||||||
| b. | Sy kom die blomme rangskik. | ||||||||||||||
| she come.LINK the flowers arrange..INF | |||||||||||||||
| She is coming to arrange the flowers. | |||||||||||||||
| c. | Die ys begin nou smelt. | ||||||||||||||
| the ice begin.LINK now melt.INF | |||||||||||||||
| The ice begins to melt now. | |||||||||||||||
| d. | Loop slaap nou! | ||||||||||||||
| go.LINK.IMP sleep.INF now | |||||||||||||||
| Go to bed now! | |||||||||||||||
| e. | Ons laat pizzas kom vir aandete. | ||||||||||||||
| we let.LINK pizzas come.INF for supper | |||||||||||||||
| We are ordering pizzas for supper. | |||||||||||||||
Durative or continuative aspect is expressed by bly to keep on and aanhou to continue:
| a. | Die klokke bly heelnag lui. | ||||||||||||||
| the bells keep.on.LINK all.night ring.INF | |||||||||||||||
| The bells keep on ringing all night. | |||||||||||||||
| b. | Dit hou aan (met) reën. | ||||||||||||||
| it keep.on.PRS with rain.INF/NMLZ | |||||||||||||||
| It keeps on raining. | |||||||||||||||
Ophou to stop contributes terminative aspect to the clause:
| Dit hou op (met) reën. |
| it stop.PRS with rain.INF/NMLZ |
| The rain is stopping. |
| a. | Hy sien haar op die sypaadjie loop. | ||||||||||||||
| he see.LINK her on the sidewalk walk.INF | |||||||||||||||
| He sees her walking on the sidewalk. | |||||||||||||||
| b. | Ons kon die aarde voel ruk. | ||||||||||||||
| we can.AUX.MOD.PRT the earth feel.LINK shake.INF | |||||||||||||||
| We could feel the earth shaking. | |||||||||||||||
| c. | Jy kan nie 'n mier hoor loop nie. | ||||||||||||||
| you can.AUX.MOD not an ant hear.LINK walk.INF PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
| One can't hear an ant walking. | |||||||||||||||
| d. | Na die ongeluk moes sy weer leer loop. | ||||||||||||||
| after the accident have.to.AUX.MOD.PST she again learn.LINK walk.INF | |||||||||||||||
| After the accident she had to learn to walk again. | |||||||||||||||
Causative verbs are laat to let, maak to force, leer to teach. In the case of causative leer, as in (7d), the agent of the linking verb (the "teacher") is not coreferential with that projected by the main verb (the "learner"), while in the case of example (6d) above both verbs have the same agent.
| a. | Hulle het mooi meubels laat maak. | ||||||||||||||
| they have.AUX beautiful furniture let.LINK make.INF | |||||||||||||||
| They had beautiful furniture made. | |||||||||||||||
| b. | Die rooi vrug laat trek die man suurgesig. | ||||||||||||||
| the red fruit let.LINK pull.INF the man sour.face | |||||||||||||||
| The red fruit caused the man to be sour-faced. | |||||||||||||||
| H.Nortjé: In die skadu, 2012, 23 | |||||||||||||||
| c. | Jy kan nie 'n rondloper maak stilsit nie. | ||||||||||||||
| you can.AUX.MOD not a vagrant make.INF quiet.sit.INF PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
| You can't force a vagrant to sit quietly. | |||||||||||||||
| W.Anker: Buys, 2014, 290 | |||||||||||||||
| d. | Anna het my leer boeke oortrek. | ||||||||||||||
| Anna have.AUX me teach.LINK books cover.INF | |||||||||||||||
| Anna taught me to cover books. | |||||||||||||||
Other linking verbs are help to help, probeer to try and waag to dare:
| a. | Jy moet kom help sing in die koor. | ||||||||||||||
| you must.AUX.MOD come.LINK help.LINK sing.INF in the choir | |||||||||||||||
| You should come to help (us) sing in the choir. | |||||||||||||||
| b. | Probeer harder trek aan die ander kant! | ||||||||||||||
| try.LINK.IMP harder pull.INF on the other end | |||||||||||||||
| Try to pull harder at the other end! | |||||||||||||||
| c. | 'n Geritsel waaroor niemand durf waag praat nie. | ||||||||||||||
| a rustling PN.about nobody dare.AUX.MOD risk.LINK talk.INF PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
| A rustling noise about which nobody dares to talk. | |||||||||||||||
| H. Nortjé: In die skadu, 2012, 39 | |||||||||||||||
| d. | Die kyk wat sy my gee, sê ek sal haar nie waag volg nie. | ||||||||||||||
| the look that.REL she me give say I will.AUX.MOD her not dare.LINK follow.INF PTCL.NEG | |||||||||||||||
| The look she gave me says that I won't dare to follow her. | |||||||||||||||
| W. Anker: Buys, 2014, 160 | |||||||||||||||
In (9a), movement away from the speaker's deictic centre strengthens his/her disapproval of the action, while movement towards his/her deictic centre, as in (9b), suggests approval of the same action (Cf. Broekhuis et al. 2015:1021).
| a. | Hulle het 'n dop loop drink. | ||||||||||||||
| they have.AUX a tot go.LINK drink.INF | |||||||||||||||
| They went to have a drink. | |||||||||||||||
| b. | Hulle het 'n dop kom drink | ||||||||||||||
| the have.AUX a tot come.LINK drink.INF | |||||||||||||||
| They came to have a drink. | |||||||||||||||
The verb gaan to go, will resembles the modal verb sal will in some of its usages but expresses motion in others. In (10a) stranding of the main verb is obligatory and therefore marked, as in (10b). Example (10c) and (10d) show that stranding is optional if gaan means 'to go'.
| a. | Ek gaan jou binnekort betaal, hoor! | ||||||||||||||
| I will.AUX.MOD you.2SG shortly pay.INF hear.IMP | |||||||||||||||
| Don't worry, I'll pay you shortly! | |||||||||||||||
| b. | *Ek gaan betaal jou binnekort, hoor! | ||||||||||||||
| I go.AUX.MOD pay.INF you shortly hear.IMP | |||||||||||||||
| To mean: I'll pay you shortly | |||||||||||||||
| c. | Sy gaan koop toe 'n nuwe rekenaar. | ||||||||||||||
| she go.LINK buy.INF then a new computer | |||||||||||||||
| She then went to buy a new computer. | |||||||||||||||
| d. | Sy gaan toe 'n nuwe rekenaar koop. | ||||||||||||||
| she go.LINK then a new computer buy.INF | |||||||||||||||
| She then went to buy a new computer. | |||||||||||||||
- Broekhuis, Hans, Corver, Norbert & Vos, Riet2015Syntax of Dutch. Verbs and verb phrasesComprehensive grammar resourcesAmsterdam University Press
- Ponelis, F.A1979Afrikaanse sintaksis.Van Schaik
- Van Schoor, J.L1983Die grammatika van standaard-Afrikaans.Lex Patria
